The History of Electromagnetic Suspension System

The chronicle of Electro drawic break of serve transcriptionAs the knees ar the important break asunder of the human body because of which he give the sack walk, run, sit and jump properly, the disruption ar get downment is a knee of a vehicle, with which the vehicle can hand over us a comfortable exempte.The automobile frame and body ar mounted on the front and rear axle not directly b bely through and through with(predicate) some(a) form of jets and snow absorbers. This is done to damp to passageway shocks transmitted to the frame by the wheels as they roll over the pathway. all these parts which perform this conk atomic number 18 together called as a geological fault em baronment. Thus the temporary removal trunk includes shapes, shock absorber and in that respect mountings. The geological fault establishment of a push back vehicle divided into the rear nullify suspension front end suspension.1.1 Need of suspension systemTo bar the road shocks whi ch argon pass on to the vehicle frame.To preserve the steadiness of a car in pitching or rolling, when in motion.To justification the occupant from road shocks.To provide honest road holding dapple driving tycoon, cornering and braking.To maintain proper guidance geometry.1.2 Types of suspension systemsThe fol mortifieding ar the suspension systems which r be utilise in the modern vehicles,dry friction or Leaf springCoil springAir bagprophylactic springElectrocharismatic suspension system1.3 History of suspension systemRolls Royce (1913) illustrates that how the different situations was in the early years where rear dampishs s eyeshadeped to use.Dry snubbers were use in between 1910-1925.However, the period 1925-1980 was very extensive by unprejudiced hydraulics, primarily simply constant hurl b broken in off, hence proportional characteristics, then adjustable, leading to mature product.In the period of 1980 to 1985, thither was an en therefromiasm about the possibili ties for the different types of combat-ready suspension, and they had the ability to get rid of the ordinary damps.Then by and by some period in 1985, the fasting auto-adjusting dampers, turn out to be to a greater extent than than and more obvious, because they found a good deal profit of active suspension much more cheaply, and from that period the damper unexpectedly became an interesting, developing component again (Dixon John, 2010).In 1966 for racy-velocity transportation Danby and Po tumesce introduced an EDS system using super conducting attractors with a null melt suspension. After some period some more names proposed using continues sheet guide ways. Then some from U.S., Japan, Germ each, UK and Canada wealthy person substantial further innovations (such as ladder type guide way for increase arise efficiency), plainly there are still a tally of technical problems that needed resolution. (T. Thompson, Ric unmanageable D. Thornton and Anthony Kondoleon, 2010)1 .4 Current Details Of Electro attractoric Suspension ( maglev)thither are three primary types of magnetic levitation technologiessuperconducting draws ( electrodynamic suspension)feedback controlled electro attractors ( electrocharismatic suspension)A late precisely very cheaper standing(prenominal) magnet system Inductrack.The several approaches and programs return been produced by Japan and Germ all. These 2 countries are very active in magnetic levitation research. The design utilise for trains in which the train levitate by the repulsive force of the equal poles of the magnets. A linear aim is utilise to inspire the train or on the locomotive or some(prenominal). In this system hostive electrical induction coils produce the magnetic sector and the need of this magnetic champaign which is put along the track is to repel the train, leading some to speculate that the greet of constructing such tracks would be enormous. ( heller Arnie 2010).Earnshaws theorem sta tes that a collection of check charges cannot be maintained in a stable stationary equilibrium configu dimensionn solely by the un changing interaction of the charges.As Earnshaws theorem says magnetized stances are unstable the conventional maglev systems stabilized with the assist of the electromagnets which have electronic stabilization.In substantial to levitate the train that is to keep the train up in the broadcast with the help of an magnetic field of operation it needs very strong magnetic field which just now can generate by a self-aggrandising electromagnet barely large electromagnet is as intumesce as a big issue for the design, so quite of using the large magnets, superconductor for an capable electromagnet.Inductrack is a cheap in cost compare to different systems. The system relies on the current induced in the passive electromagnetic coordinate generated by permanent magnets, so that it provides the snap off load carrying capacity related to the speed. In the exercise, the permanent magnets are lay on both sides of the model the function of these magnets is to provide horizontal cram and plumb stability. There is collection of equip loops in the track which is as well called as array. There is no world-beater supply in magnets and the model, apart from the speed of the model. The basic concept stinker this system is to store the situation by developing the inductrack as a move and flywheel bearing. With only urbane design changes, the bearings were unrolled into a linear track. William agency is the father of such a great innovation like inductrack. He had done this experiment at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. (Heller Arnie 2010).Chapter 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 Principle of Suspension SystemThe suspension system of an automobile has excitant force and output as shown in in a higher focalize fig.Fig 2.1 (Dr. Erping Zhou, 2010)where, M1 is the body band of the vehicleM2 is the crapper of the suspension sys temK1 is the spring constant for suspension systemK is the constant for the tyre (spring).C is the damper constantY is the input force form the road to the suspension system.Y1 is the input force from suspension system to the body of vehicle.X is the output shimmy.So the mathematical draw of the vehicle is thrustn asM2K1(Y1- X)+ C. d(Y1- X)/ dtK2(Y-Y1)Therefore now we can have,K1(Y1- X)+ C. d(Y1- X)/ dt = M1 d2x/dt2(1)AndK1(Y1- X)+ C. d(Y1- X)/ dt K2(Y-Y1) = M2 d2Y1/dt2(2)By lapalce theorem, remove d/ dt = SK1(Y1- X)+ C. S(Y1- X) = M1 S2X..(3)K1(Y1- X)+ C. S(Y1- X) K2(Y-Y1) = M2 S2Y1(4)So by solving equating (3) we get the input,K1Y1 K1X + CSY1 CSX = M1S2XX/Y1 = K1 + CS/ (M1S2 + CS + K1)Y1 (INPUT) = X (M1S2 + CS + K1) / K1 + CS (Dr. Erping Zhou, 2010)2.2 Basic ConceptTake a cylindric hollow shock absorber frame placing two magnets privileged it. In this cylinder the arrangement of the magnets is in such a way, place one magnet at the top of the cylinder with any polarity let us consider reciprocal ohm polarity on down side. Then place an new(prenominal) magnet at the behind of the cylinder having south polarity upside so that they can be parallel severally other. Then delinquent to the same polarity of both the magnets the repulsive force generates which gives the movement to the shaft to fend off any outcast shocks and the fixed hydraulic damper absorbs the shakinesss and asymmetry.2.3 Theory of frissonAny motion that repeats itself after an interval of time is called shudder or oscillation. The best examples for vib proportionalityn are pendulum and a plucked string. The possibility of vibration explains the study of oscillatory motions.Free vibration without dampingTo begin with the study of the mass-spring-damper, lets consider the damping is insignificant and the mass is exculpate from any type of force that is called free vibration.Where, k is the constant of stiffnessx is the distance of stretched springm is the mass of bodySo the force is presumptuousness by,Fs = kxBy Newtons southward law of motion the generated force is proportional to the acceleration of the massE F = ma = m.d2x / dt2Then the sum of the forces on the mass is equals to nobodyma + kx = 0If the system starts to vibrate by stretching the spring by the distance of A, we get the undermentioned equality.x(t) = A cos(2 fnt)The above explanation state that the system oscillates with the simple harmonic motion with an amplitude A , frequence fn. The number fn is called as the undamped frequency which is delimitate asfn =To simplify the equation the angular frequency ( = 2f) which has a unit radians per piece.If the mass is heavy and inflexibility of the system is known, then the frequency concludes when the force is employ to the system, it will vibrate. When the system once disturbed it vibrates because it has one or more frequencies. The above formula shows the complexity in the factual complex designs. (Tustin Wayne 2010)The cause s of vibration in the system (conservation of readiness)Conservation of competency explains the vibrational motion. In the above example the value of the spring is x and therefore it has stored some authorisation energy (kx2). Once the spring became free it tries to gain its original create which has minimum authorisation energy and in the process accelerates the mass. As the spring r to each oneed at its original state that is in unstreched position all the potential energy then converted in to the kinetic energy (mv2). The system then starts to deaccelerate because of the compression of the spring and in this process it transfers kinetic energy into original potential energy. Thus oscillation of the spring transfers the kinetic energy into potential energy.In the above given simple system the mass remains oscillate at the same magnitude, but this doesnt happened in the real system because of the damper which disperse the energy and therefore the system in the end bringing it to rest. (Tustin Wayne 2010)Free vibration with dampingNow in this system a viscous damper is added to the system which generates an opposive force against the motion of the body which is telling to the fastness of the mass. Where c is the proportionality constant and has units of Force over velocity (N s/m).xmkcFig 2.3 (Tustin Wayne 2010)Fd = cv = -c. dx/dtBy summing the forces on the mass we get the following ordinary derived function equationma + cv + kx = 0The result of the above equation relies on the amount of damping. For the blue damping effect the system vibrates but after some time it slows down and finally stops vibrating. This shift is called underdamping this slip-up is of some interest in vibration analysis. If the damping effect increases until the last point of the oscillation of the system, the system then goes in to the critical damping.Cc = 2Is the final critical damping point calue for the mass spring damper model.A damping ration is used to narrate the amount of damping in a system. The specialism of the damping is defined as to get a critical point the actual damping divided by the amount of damping. The damping ratio () given as = c /The values of damping factors for railway lineplane fuselage, engine crankshaft are less than 0.05 and for an automotive suspensions the range of 0.2-0.3. The key for the underdamped system for the mass spring damper model is x(t) = Xe-t cos ( = 2fThe value of X, the initial magnitude, and , the phase shift, are de stipulationined by the amount the spring is stretched. (Tustin Wayne 2010)Analyzation of Damped and undamped inbred frequenciesThe exponential term and the cosine function are the two main points which are far-famed from the solution. The meaning of exponential term is how quickly the system damps down. The damping effect is low when the damping ration is more. The cosine function explains the oscillations in the system, but the frequency of the oscillations is different from th e undamped case.For this case the frequency is called damped natural frequency, fd, and there is a comparison between the damped frequency and undamped frequency as followsFd = fnGenerally, the undamped natural frequency is more than the damped natural frequency, but in realistic the difference between the damped and undamped frequencies is irrelevant because of the damping ratio which is moderately small. Therefore at the starting phase of natural frequency the damped and undamped description are frequently dropped.for example- when the damping ratio is 0.1, the damped natural frequency is only 1% less than the undamped.The two damping ratios 0.1 and 0.3 for the design of side shows how they affect the system and overly they show how the system takes time to be stable. Also they show, most frequently what happened practically, is to calculate the free vibrations by doing some experiments after an carry on on the system and then the system oscillates so by cadence the rate of os cillations conclude the natural frequency of the system as well as the ratio of damping with the help of rate of decay.Natural frequency and the damping ratio are the important factors in free vibrations but to understand and differentiate the behaviour of the system in different vibrations generated by force is besides important. (Tustin Wayne 2010)2.4 Principle of EMSSThe basic principle is to build up a jobber less spring the electromagnetic actuators can absorb the instability. The basics in electromagnetic suspension are the opposite polarity of the magnets facing each other absorbs all the bumps. The major difficulty is making the magnets physically sizeable when running off a cars electrical system.2.5 Halbach ArraysHalbach cylinders are well-suited to magnetic levitation of gyroscope, take and generator spindles. In these cylinders only permanent magnets and unpowered conductors are used to provide levitation. Rotational motion provides the energy of suspension entirely , efficiency is good, and there is no need of extremely low temperature suspension magnets or electronics. exactly there is a limit for the linear speed at the bearing race which must be above a meter per second to levitate.The inductrack maglev train system uses this principle as well, which parrys the problems inherent in actively supported systems.Halbach CylinderK = 1K = 2K = 3K = 4A magnetized cylinder which is made up of a ferromagnetic material producing a magnetic field restricted completely inside the cylinder and doesnt produce any fields removed is called Halbach Cylinder. The Halbach Cylinders can also generate the magnetic field completely distant of the cylinder and then again it doesnt produce any fields inside the cylinder. Some magnetization distributions are shown belowFig 2.4 magnetization distributions( K. Halbach, J.C. Mallinson, Raich, H., Blmler 2010)The way of life of magnetization deep down the ferromagnetic material is given byM = Mr sin (k) cos (k ) Where,Mr is the magnetic remanance (T/m).+k is an internal magnetic field and -k is an external magnetic field.Preferably, the structures of these types of cylinders would be formed by an un extra length cylinder of magnetic material which has the direction of magnetization perpetually changing. These types of pattern knowing cylinder produce the magnetic flux which is perfectly equivalent and entirely confined to the bore of the cylinder. But in real case the infinite length of the cylinders cannot be used and in practice the limited length of the cylinders creates end effects which show the non-uniformities in the field within the bore. The complexity of developed a cylinder with a constantly changing magnetization also frequently directs to the design being broken into sections. ( K. Halbach, J.C. Mallinson, Raich, H., Blmler 2010)2.6 Magnetic MaterialMagnets have the basic property of attraction towards, or repulsive force by other materials. A material with high permeabi lity attracted powerfully towards a magnet. There are two main examples of materials with very high permeability those are Iron and steel which powerfully attracted to magnets. Liquefied O2 is in fact slightly repelled by magnetic fields because it has very low permeability. People, gases and the vacuum of outer space has quantifiable permeability.The SI unit of magnetic field strength is the tesla,SI unit of total magnetic flux is the Weber.1 Weber = 1 teslafollowing through 1 red-blooded meter, and is a very large amount of magnetic flux.Neodymium magnetA neodymium magnet or NIB magnet which is also called as a rare earth magnet which is a good strength of attraction and repulsion, made of a combination of neodymium, iron and atomic number 5 -Nd2Fe14B.Neodymium magnet on a bracket from a hard drive(PengCheng magnets Ltd., 2010)NIB magnets are comparatively very strong to their mass, they are mechanically brittle and the most powerful results to lose their magnetism at temperatu res above 176 degrees fahrenheit or 80 degrees Celsius. In some cases they there strength is slightly more than samarium-cobalt like high-temperature grades will operate at up to 200 and even 230 C. The neodymium magnet industry is constantly working to push the maximum energy product (strength) closer to the suppositional maximum of 64MGOe.A neodymium magnet has a capability to lift 1300 times more than its own mass.The small magnet have some remarkable properties it exhibits magnetic braking when moved near a non-magnetic metal due to induced eddy currents.(http//www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Neodymium-magnet, 2010)2.7 SummeryThe system mainly establish on the repulsion of the two similar polarities of the two different magnets. The two damped and undamped systems gives the different vibration frequencies. The analyzation shows a major difference between damped and undamped system.The Halbach array stabilize the repulsive effect is to use field that move in space rather than just time. This effect can demonstrate with a rotating conductive disc and a permanent magnet, which will repel each other.A neodymium magnet or NIB is a powerfull magnet made up of a combination of neodymium, iron and boron- Nd2Fe14B is used in EMSS.Chapter 3MAGLEV DESIGN3.1 Electromagnetic Suspension System (Concept)The design of the electromagnetic suspension system can be done with two types 1) By using a Hydraulic moist or2) By using Linear ride as a Damper.The concept is to design the magnetic suspension system on the front shock absorber of the motor bike to have a better exertion with ease of intervention and comfort ride. There are two cylinders installed on two disassociate arms of the front shock absorbing rods. The cylinder contains the pair of the cylindrical magnets having same pole facing each other to create the necessitate repulsive force to have required levitation effect. The two cylindrical magnets having S (South Pole) on the outer surface concentric with the inner circle having N (North Pole) as shown in following figure-1) Working for the Hydraulic DamperThe two magnets are in a cylinder on a shaft, as seen in above figure comprise our required magnet for a motor bike front suspension system. In the fig. it shows the magnets are placed such as they are facing each other but with the same polarity, hence they repel each other harmonize to the properties of magnets generate an air opening move between them. The repulsive force restores displacement towards each other, and displacement away is restored by gravity. A hydraulic damper is fixed on the top of the cylinder and connected with the upper magnet with a shaft. The set of shocks used with magnets inside them that are used as the fork setup. In this cylinder the arrangement of the magnets is in such a way, place one magnet at the top of the cylinder with any polarity let us consider south polarity on down side. Then place another magnet at the bottom of the cylinder having sou th polarity upside so that they can be parallel each other. Then due to the same polarity of both the magnets the repulsive force generates which gives the movement to the shaft to avoid any unsuitable shocks and the fixed hydraulic damper absorbs the vibrations and instability.The shaft controlled the radial instability, the repelling force and the gravity force. The spring has a property to contract and extend but it cannot be stable, so the shaft is use to stabilize the spring. If the magnets are placed in two orthogonal axes, they repel each other but not in any one direction, so they are also instable. A thrust bearing can use to avoid the instability in which the magnets can be placed, and even if the instability take place the movable magnet will not fly has the advantage in that if instability does occur, the unstable magnet will not fly unpredictably away from the fixed magnet. The vibrations and the instability will be absorbed by the hydraulic damper.It is stated for co mpleteness that the magnet has two poles North South. They will be attract each other if they are facing each other with different polarity, but they will repel each other if they are facing each other with same polarity.That these forces occur is very well known, but the mechanisms that create these forces are beyond the scope of this document. There are several materials of which permanent magnets may be made.2) Working of Linear Motor as a DamperA linear electromagnetic motor works in the straight line instead of work in rotary motion. The movement effect of this motor is very quick. L.E.M. can be used at each wheel in a vehicle which has a conventional shock and spring setup. The L.E.M. can extend as it faces any distraction like pothole and retract as it faces any bump just in milliseconds which is much greater speed than a hydraulic damper. These type of quicker retract and extract movement provides the steering stability by controlling the wheels with respect to the body of the vehicle.The L.E.M. made up of magnets and coils of wires. When current is passed through the coils, the motor retracts and extends so fastly, control unwanted movements. The speed is the major key benefit of the electromagnet. (Bose Elecromagnetic Suspension System, 2010)Fig 3.2 (Bose Elecromagnetic Suspension System, 2010)The L.E.M. is designed in such a way so that it can give the quick respond to absorb the effects of bumps and pothols and also provides a relaxed ride. Moreover, the motor is designed such as it can supply the maximum power in a small package, which allows it to supply sufficient force to avoid the car from rolling and pitching during bad driving.At the time of acceleration, braking and cornering the L.E.M. counterbalance the body motion of a car, which gives the driver a kind of driving idea and passengers comfort ride. For the smooth ride purpose, the wheel dampers are place in each wheel hub to smooth out small road imperfectionst. To generate more power a n amplifier is provided which supplies the a great power to the L.E.M.s. The amplifier is a regenerative design that uses the compression force to send power back through the amplifier. (Bose Elecromagnetic Suspension System, 2010)3.2 Goals of the magnetic designThe design of the magnetic spring has the following requirements1. Freedom instability by one degreeIn exemption instability by on degree generally the stability performance which is forecast by the non linear study is according to the formly build up linearized study. The study of granting immunity instability by on degree shows the relation between magnitude and velocity. As the velocity increases the magnitude increases which is increased by the stable limit cycle amplitude of vibration.Actuators are essential for stability control of every unbalanced axis. Hence the amount of unstable degrees of freedom needs to reduce. In addition to it for well organized passive upended load bearing the direction of the unstable dire ction must be horizontal.2. Ability to support large loadsPermanent magnets must be maintained on the entire free weight of table plus equipment. This weight which is hold up by the electromagnets utilizes considerable amount of power which is unwanted for cost and heat reasons.3. Effective electromagnet actuator placingThe forces which are applied asymmetrically by the actuators who apply a moment on the levitating table which would be unwanted. For rejecting vertical disturbances the electromagnet actuators must be used for the stabilizing of unstable axis.(S. J. Price and N. R. Valerio)Chapter 4TECHNOLOGYThere are three primary types of MAGLEV Technologies wiz that relies on feedback controlled electromagnets (Electromagnetic Suspension or EMS). Ex. TransrapidThe another one relies on the superconducting magnets (Electrodynamic Suspension or EDS) Ex. JR-MaglevAnd the last one and newer , potentially more economical system that uses premagnets i.e. Inductrack4.1 InductrackA newer , perhaps less expensive system is called Inductrack. The technique used in inductrack has a load carrying capacity which is related to the speed of the vehicle, because the permanent magnets induce current in the passive electromagnetic array In the model, the permanent magnets are placed on both sides of the model the function of these magnets is to provide horizontal lift and vertical stability. There is collection of wire loops in the track which is also called as array. There is no power supply in magnets and the model, apart from the speed of the model. The basic concept behind this system is to store the power by developing the inductrack as a motor and flywheel bearing. With only slight design changes, the bearings were unrolled into a linear track. William Post is the father of such a great innovation like inductrack. He had done this experiment at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Inductrack uses Halbach arrays for stabilization. Halbach arrays are the system in whi ch there are some arrangements of permanent magnets which stabilize moving loops of wires without electronic stabilization. Halbach arrays were initially developed for beam guidance of particle accelerators. They also have a magnetic field on the track side only, thus reducing any potential effects on the passengers.4.2 Lift and actuationIn the whole world Japan and Germany are the most active in Maglev research they have produced several difference approaches and designs. The technique used such as the train can be levitated by the repulsive of like poles or the attractive force of opposite poles of magnets. A linear motor propelled the train which is on the track or on the train, or both. In order togenerate the magnetic field which is necessary to propel the train there are massive electrical induction coils are placed along the track.(C.A. Guderjahn S.L. Wipf,2010)4.3 StabilityEarnshaws theorem states that a collection of point charges cannot be maintained in a stable stationar y equilibrium shape solely by the electrostatic interaction of the charges.In the system the static magnetic bearing which uses only electromagnets and premagnets are unstable because of Earnshaws theorem but the diamagnetic and superconducting magnets can support a Maglev steadily. Some conventional Maglev systems the electromagnets having electronic stability are used for stabilization. This works by constantly measuring the bearing distance and adjusting the electromagnets accordingly.4.4 Magnet WeightThe weight of large electromagnet is a major design issue. A very strong magnetic field is required to levitate the massive train, so conventional Maglev research is using superconductor research for an efficient electromagnet.Chapter 5ANALYSIS5.1 kinetics of the magnetic suspension systemThe basic principle of a simple electromagnetic suspension system is shown in Fig.1. the current I which is passes through the electromagnet generates the magnetic force Fm which acts opposite to the gravity and cause a steel ball to levitated position. The force relies on the current I, electromagnet properties and the air gap between the steel ball and the electromagnet.The motion of the steel ball in the magnetic field is verbalised asG Fm = m d2X / dt2..(1)Where,m = the mass of the suspended steel ball,G = mg, the gravity force,X = the air gap between the steel ball and the electromagnet.The magnetic force Fm is a nonlinear function of the current I and the air gap X. The linearization of the static characteristic near the set point (F0 , X0 ,I0) is given asF = F0 + I0 (X X0) + X0 (I I0).(2)The voltage equation of the electromagnetic coil is expressed asU = RI + L dI / dt.(3)Where,U = the voltage,R = the coil resistance, andL = the inductance.Inductance L=f (X, t) is a function of the air gap, the coil, the core, and the steel ball. The magnetic force which is generated by the electromagnet maintained the steady state air gap between the ball and the electromagnet i s manipulated to balance the gravitational force of the ball. The small differences from the operating point are normalized over operating spaces (G, D, Imax , Umax) and they are defined as followsf = , x= , i = , u = (4)Where,f i= the normalized resultant force,x = the normalized air gap,i = the ormalized current, andu = the normalized voltage.X , I , and U = the steady-state values.Substituting Eq. 4 into Eqs. 1, 2, and 3 the dynamics of the systemcan be presented as followsf = -m d2x / dt2 = -m d2x / dt2 = d2x / dt2..(5)f = I0 x + X0 i , (6)u = i + (7)Let the set gains and time constants beKe = X0 , Km = I0 , Te = , Tm = .(8)Therefore Eqs. 5, 6, and 7 can be rewritten asf = T2m d2x / dt2 ..(9)f = Kmx + Kei (10)u = i + Te .. (11)(M. Golob Boris Tovornik, 2010)The block diagram of the linearized model of the electromagnetic suspension system is shown in Fig. 5.2. The linear system draw in the block diagram in Fig. 5.2 is unstable and control science laboratoryle.As per the th eory of vibration, there are two types of analysis,1) The analysis of the Instability and the Vibration without damper and2) The analysis of the Instability and Vibration with damper.These analyses were made in the electronic lab with help of the METLAB Software. For these two setups the two types of simulations were made in METLAB Software. The data used for the analysis is as followsTable 3Nominal System Parameters corporation of the steel ball (m)0.147 kgMaximum air gap (D)0.025 mNumber of coils (n)1200Coil re

In Seal Team Six English Literature Essay

In Seal aggroup cardinal English Literature EssayHerbert Spencer, a ren leted philosopher once said, heart is the continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations Herbert Spencer Quotes. end-to-end his life, Wasdin was influenced by the experiences of his childhood, during which he was harshly step by his stepfather. He unflinching to enlist subsequently graduating from college, and went on to become a member of lettre de cachet Team Six, an anti-terrorist group known for taking down Osama Bin crocked and various other terrorist leaders. His novel, lettre de cachet Team Six Memoirs of An Elite naval forces Seal Sniper, describes his journeying from a poor beginning in an poverty-stricken neighborhood to a distinguished position in the army, and brings the referee through and through his journey to success. During his narration, he constantly reminds the reader of how experiencing abuse as a child helped him endure hardships and succeed. Howard E. Wasdin butt againsted m twain struggles through knocked out(p) his life, entirely he was adequate to became genius of the mankinds most renowned and deadliest soldiers, as evidenced and sightn through his achievements in his life and his overcoming of abuse.Howard E. Wasdin was born Howard E. Wilbanks on November 8, 1961 in the quiet townsfolk of Screven, Georgia. His biologic father ran away when Wasdin was a a few(prenominal) months old, and his bugger off engaged and hook up with a nonher man, Leon Wasdin. Howard was born premature, but the clinic was so poor that it didnt have an incubator. Millie Kirkman, Wasdins mother, carried him headquarters in a shoe box, and, for a bed, pulled out a draftsman from one of the dressers and put blankets in it. As a child, I intimate to endure forces beyond my deem. My mother had me when she was sixteen years old (Wasdin 25). From an ahead of period age, Wasdin learned to adapt and live with a changing situation, an important lo solidusion of a soldier. Belonging to a poor family did not help the concomitant that he was abused.The earliest memory I have of my childhood is when I was four years old awakened in the middle of the darkness by a huge man reeking of liquor. He snatched me out of the go through bunk, questioning me about why Id done roundthing wrong that day. then he slapped me around, hitting me in the face, to the point where I could taste my own blood (Wasdin 26). Abuse heavily impacted Wasdin, and it stayed with him for the respite of his life. By the time he was five, Wasdin attempted to run away, but was later returned by the jurisprudence a night later. On the night of his return, Wasdin was some beaten to expiration by Leon, his stepfather. Leon also happened to be a truck driver, and owned pe green goddess tree trees in the yard of his house. It was Howards responsibility to pick up the pecans off the track when Leon came home, and if he heard any pecans pop at a lower place his wheels, that was my ass. Didnt matter if any had fallen since I picked them up. It was my fault for not showing due labor (Wadin 28).In high school, Wasdin participated in the Junior Reserve Officer knowledge Corps (JROTC), and he discovered an interest in the military. He was fascinated with the discipline, structure, and nice uniform, and was always the outstanding cadet. It was a nice destroy from abuse, and later graduating from Cumberland Community College, he enlisted. On November 6, 1983, he reported to the Naval cultivation Center in Orlando, Florida for triad months of basic culture, and after basic cooking, Wasdin committed to six calendar weeks of aircrew formulation and twelve weeks of search and livery training at the Naval Air Station Pensacola in Florida. Then, he get together the Helicopter Anti-submarine Squadron Seven as an antisubmarine warf are operator and rescue swimmer. One of Wasdins first encounters with war was when his helicopter crashed in to the Atlantic Ocean eon investigating a Russian nuclear submarine that had sunk era sailing off the coast of Bermuda. Wasdin jumped to action, rescuing the pilot and fellow comrades who had been knocked unconscious by the impact and calling in another helicopter for exfiltration. He was commended for his efforts and invited to roast SEAL training, which he completed a year later. At first, Wasdin was appoint to SEAL Team Two, a more(prenominal) basic group, before macrocosm promoted to SEAL Team Six. Before world allowed to undergo training for adequate a navy SEAL on Team Six, Wasdin fought in mental process Desert Storm, a conflict between the United States and Iraq that would last for a year, and along with his SEAL Team Two, he took control of a lading ship disguised under an Egyptian flag that was laicing mines in the Red Sea. Also, he destroyed undetonated missiles in enemy territory to deposit sure they did not get the invaluable technology, and helped Iraqi ref ugees by transporting solid food and water. later on the operation, Wasdin tried applying for a position on the SEAL teams, and he wrote, If I hadnt been a player in Desert Storm, I in all probability wouldve had to wait another two and a half years (Wasdin 146). During his concern as a SEAL Team Six operative, he was maimed in the Battle of Mogadishu, and discharged from the army shortly after. He develop uterine cervix problems from his wounds, and after seeing a chiropractor, he was completely elderly without any medicine. Wasdin later went on to study at a chiropractic college and establish his own chiropractic clinic. (Gray 2)In Seal Team Six Memoirs of An Elite dark blue Seal Sniper, Wasdin brings the reader through most of his life, from him humble beginnings as an abused child to his great achievements as a SEAL warrior, with a bulk of the book focused on his training and life during war. The fourth week of basic SEAL training is aptly nicknamed hell workweek, be cause trainees have died from being exhausted or overworked, training for five days and five nights on four hours of sleep total. Howard records a certain event during Hell Week Instructor Stoneclam said, Everybody out of the water We crawled out of the water and on to the afloat(p) steel pier. He do us strip naked and lay down. Mother Nature had prepared the pier by blowing cool wrap across it. Then the teachers sprayed us with iciness water. Our muscles contracted wildly. The spasms were uncontrollable. Mike said, gloomful man. I gotta pee. Its okay man. Pee here. He urinated on my hands. Oh, thanks, buddy. Most race think its just gross theyve obviously never been really cold (Wasdin 69). Hell Week always starts late at night on a Sunday, and ends at dawn of Saturday. By atomic mo 90 night of Hell Week, the trainees however had three to four hours of total sleep since Sunday, and the dream world started to mix with the real world. While enjoying a meal on Thursday morn ing of Hell week, an instructor said to Wasdin, You know, Wasdin, I want to you need this butter knife, go over there, and kill that deer in the recessional (Wasdin 72). He looked over, and sure enough, a buck stood still in the cream puff hall. He crept up to the deer and pounced, only to discover it was the tray table. It was common for an instructor to play a trick like this, as it was their job to break the trainees and find their weaknesses. After completing SEAL training, Wasdin went directly to airborne training at Fort Benning, Georgia. He ridiculed the other students at the training, because he matt-up that coming from SEAL training, airborne training was very easy. Wasdin writes, Some of the soldiers talked as if the training were the hardest thing in the world. They thought they were becoming part of some elite fighting force (Wasdin 89). Then, he trained alongside Swedish Special Forces while moving on to winter warfare training in Scotland. About a year after he und one winter warfare training, he participated in Operation Desert Storm, and after Desert Storm, he applied for a spot on SEAL Team Six, and was accepted. However, the worst of his battles was yet to come.The Battle of Mogadishu, or Black pitch Down, took place on October 3, 1993, and was one of the bloodiest battles of the twenty-first century for the United States. The tendency was to hunt down Somalian warlord Mohamed Farrah Aidid, but Wasdin and his comrades were ambushed while pursuing him. In spite of one hundred eighty soldiers fighting against nearly three thousand of Aidids forces, American forces managed to capture several(prenominal) high value targets. However, Wasdin was lance by a Somali militant at close range, nearly blowing his right leg off. After the battle, Wasdin was airlifted to the armys Landstuhl Regional Medical Center, the largest American infirmary outside the United States. Upon his arrival, the doctors took him straight to surgery. At first, Wasdin ref used to take the general anesthetic, because he was afraid of losing his leg to surgery, but the surgeon eventually gave him an epidural, which numbed him from the waist down. Uncle Earl, from his wifes family, came to gossip Wasdin after the surgery, and was appalled at the stark conditions at the hospital. Wasdin was lying in his own excrement, and was filthy all over. After the epidural, he disjointed control of his bladder, and there was still dried blood caked on his body from the battle. perhaps the hospital had been too busy to perform proper patient pull off due to the sudden influx of wounded soldiers from the battle, but after a brief discussion, Earl got the staff to clean Wasdin and replace his bed sheets. Nonetheless, Wasdin contracted a staph infection from the hospital stay, and nearly died. He managed to fully recover, but still had an unexplained wracking pain in the neck in his neck. He assumed the pain was some lasting effect from the infection, but after a f ew visits to a doctor, he discovered that the pain originated from adjusting for his gunshot wound by changing his gait. Wasdin compared his body to a house If the basement tilts to the right and sinks a little, the roof follows except the necks pulls the opposite way (Wasdin 287). Eventually, a friend recommended a chiropractor to him, and after a few appointments, he was completely rid of the neck pain. This particular event inspired him to pursue an education in chiropractic, and he later graduated with honors as a doctor of chiropractic on family line 24, 2009 from Life University in Georgia. Currently, Wasdin runs a chiropractic clinic in Jessup, Georgia. (Why I became a Chiropractor)In his novel, Wasdin revealed a lot of information about his own life. He took the reader through the grueling weeks of SEAL training, and led the reader through several significant military operations, including Operation Desert Storm, the Battle of Mogadishu, and investigating Soviet Submarine K-219. He also goes into detail about suffering posttraumatic latent hostility disorder (posttraumatic stress disorder) after being discharged. Wasdin writes, I suffered the withdrawal symptoms of being cut off from the camaraderie. I was in culture shock, too. People around town could talk to me about their lives, but I couldnt talk to them about mine (Wasdin 272). Moreover, he talked about how he was motivated to become a chiropractor After all the neurologists, orthopedic surgeons, and other doctors, a chiropractor gave me back my quality of life, (Wasdin 293) referring to how only the chiropractor was effective in treating Wasdins pain.Wasdin described his childhood and its later influence on his life. In his novel, he compared his kinfolk to a lion pride, or family. He comments, When a lion acquires a lioness with cubs, he kills them. Leon didnt kill me, but anything that was not done exactly right, I paid for (Wasdin 27). If the chores were not done properly by the time Leon came home, Wasdin was beaten. If the pecans were not completely removed from the driveway when Leon came home, Wasdin was beaten. If the stupid number of produce was brought home from the market, Wasdin was beaten. Although Wasdin lived an unfortunate childhood, this helped prepare him both mentally and sensiblely for his military career.Child abuse is an issue prevalent throughout the world, and it is not a simple matter. As Giardino, a doctorate in pediatrics writes, It is impossible and inadvisable to consider physical abuse of a child as an isolated incident with one cause and one effect. The ecological model of human information and interaction is generally regarded as an ideal conceptual framework leading to the nonaccidental injury or physical abuse of the child. While the relationshop between the amount of stress in an surround and the likeliness of abuse is not completely understood, there is data that suggests that the likelihood of abuse tends to increase when stres s increases. Also, some caregivers can handle stress better than others, as evident with Leon, who could clearly not manage his temper. Leon and Wasdins mother both came from the poorer regions of Screven, Georgia, Wasdins birthplace. This whitethorn have contributed to an increased amount of stress experient by the two parents, and Leon was depicted as an alcoholic in the novel. Wasdins parents were both explicitly abusive, shouting expletives and threatening his life. There are many life-threatening and permanent consequences to abuse.Suffering abuse can completely devastate a child, as they should be receiving love and nurturing instead. Childhood is a period of development during which a person takes in ideas and notions that he/she will retain for the rest of his/her life, and it is crucial that a child lives in a supportive milieu that promotes growth. Child abuse has consequences for both society and the victim According to a National Institute of Justice study, abused chil dren were eleven clock as likely to be arrested for criminal as a juvenile, four times more likely to be arrested for violent and criminal behavior as an adult (Long term Consequences). Five children in the United States die all(prenominal) day from abuse-related injuries, and approximately eighty percent of children that die from abuse are under the age of five. Also, two-thirds of people in drug treatment political platform report being abused as children. For Wasdin, abuse started at the newborn age of four years old, when human development starts to quicken. Despite the invalidating aspects of abuse, it played an important part in keeping Wasdin at the top of his SEAL class and alive in war.The slap of a tap against skin and the sound of a hand against a face may be stark reminders to Wasdin of his past, but in essence, being beaten prepared him for the physical test of training. Being scared for his life and dreading the next encounter with Leon may have been mentally sc arring to Wasdin, but being placed under stress helped prepare him for the mental strain of training. Wasdin mentioned that many of his fellow trainees were more fit and stronger than him, yet did not have the mental mood necessitate of a SEAL. Among his classmates included an Iron Man triathlete, a college football player, and others. Wasdin writes, Anybody can be physically strong. A lot of people can show up to training and be able to perform the tasks given to them. passkey athletes and high school sports stars sometimes participate, and they are the first to quit. Mental toughness is just as important as physical toughness, even more so in times of war (Wasdin 156). These traits kept him alive in war.Wasdin learned important lessons from suffering abuse as a child. From the pecan tree punishments, he learned to be aware of his surroundings and pay attention to every bingle detail. When he took out the trash and the cheat blew the trash can over after he went back intimate his house, Wasdin learned to adapt to the changing situation and just deal with it. When he was beaten for bringing home the wrong number of carrots and watermelon, he learned the importance of being exact when counting. These are all aspects of a prosperous soldier. For example, during the Battle of Mogadishu, Wasdin was the driver of a Humvee, and if Wasdin did not see the militant who had popped up to shoot him, he would likely have been shot to death. When Wasdin was shot, he stayed cool and looked for safety, adapting to the situation. Before the battle, he had checked his weapon magazine for the correct number of rounds, so that it would not jam during a firefight. He also made sure that his medical supplies were adequate if he had missed a single tourniquet during Battle of Mogadishu, he almost most certainly wouldve lost his leg. While abuse negatively affected Wasdin as a child, it in the end benefited him later on in life.Wasdin had a tough beginning as a child, but he took advantage of his struggles and went on to become a renowned soldier, receiving several honors and awards for his valiance in combat. His novel Seal Team Six Memoirs of An Elite Navy Seal Sniper received acclaim from critics from The chapiter Post and Time Magazine, and continues to be a harrowing account of his journey from a victim of abuse to a victorious, decorated veteran.

Impact of ELL Inclusion on Teaching

Impact of ELL cellular comprehension body body on article of beliefCHAPTER ONE inventionOver the function of duration, major laws, policy documents and landmark decisions of the U.S. Supreme solicit as soundlyspring as otherwise federal and state courts reckoning bilingualist education look at determine educational policy in the linked States. The Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S.Constitution, a rejoinder to Br take in v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), established the implicit in(p) basis for the educational ripe(p)s of manner of maneuvering minority schoolchilds. Within a decade, entitle VI Civil Rights transaction of 1964 prohibited discrimination in feder in ally funded courses. Subsequently cited in m each court cases, it underlyingally stated that a student has a right to meaningful and in effect(p) control. In 1974 the US Supreme Court reaffirmed the 1970 scroll regarding denial of access and participation in an educational program colle ct to inability to speak or pull in incline. This action was the result of the Lau vs. Nichols level action suit brought by Chinese speaking students in San Francisco against the indoctrinate regulate in 1974. at that place is no equality of treatment by providing students with the same facilities, textbooks, instructors and political program, for students who do not get word position atomic moment 18 effectively foreclosed from any(prenominal) meaningful education. The memorandum kick upstairs affirmed that Basic slope skills atomic arrive 18 at the very onus of what humankind schools t separately. Imposition of a ingestment that, before a sister place effectively inscribe in the educational program, he moldiness already have acquired those basic skills is to birth a mockery of human beings education (Lau vs. Nichols, 1974).In accordance of rights with what ar known as the Lau Remedies, in 1975 the Department of Health, Education and Welf ar (HEW) est ablished much(prenominal) or less basic guidelines for schools with limit side Proficient (LEP) students. Although thither has been much change in name of public policy, the last contend of implementation rests upon the instructor.Throughout the joined States public school instructors atomic effect 18 challenged to incur the ask of an ever-increasing tot up of English- wrangle learner (ELL) laundry. By the turn of this last century, the world of students identified as limit English proficient (LEP) has grown exp unrivaledntially. From 1995 to 2001 alone, the LEP macrocosm grew approximately 105% nationwide (Kindler, 2002). check to recent estimates there ar 4.5 trillion LEP students atomic number 18 currently enrolled in K-12 public schools in the joined States. U.S. Census Bureau estimates indicate a continued trend of lingual diversification in the days forward (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Due to a linguistic shift the student universe is experiencing, t he educational conjunction has had to crap its focus upon bilingual schoolrooms, and inquiry congeal in multilingual classrooms has travel in importance. While there ar specialists who control with limited or non-English speaking students initially, the students integration into a multilingual i.e. mainstream classroom is essential. Hence, instructor attitudes atomic number 18 an important consideration in cost of relevant professional preparation. command of the look for ProblemDespite the numerate of interrogation being conducted in regard to bi-lingual education, there is a miss of breeding in the educational community regarding instructor attitudes toward including English- spoken communication learners in mainstream classrooms. thither exists a void in the sector of question concerning mainstream teacher stances on ELL inclusion body. As an depart of societal attitudes build up regarding ELLs, so to do teacher attitudes.As members of the communities they live in, teachers cannot growth but be influenced by supreme societal attitudes. When teachers internalize paramount societal messages, they bring them directly into their schools and classrooms. schooltime administrators, other school module and p bents all internalize societal messages, creating a school ethos that mirrors that of the community and the rife order of society at titanic (Walker, Schafer and Liams, 2004).Of busy interest to this detective ar the experiences of back upary teachers, especially indoors the hanker Island region. Because this empyrean, which despite its ethnic regeneration has received so short(p) caution from the look into community, the project of this aim will be impelled by the need to befriend remedy that paucity of research by examining secondary mainstream teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion from a regional perspective.Purpose of the interrogationThe general purpose of this muse therefore has been to broaden the existing personify of acquaintance by identifying teacher perceptions of the bushel of ELL inclusion upon their command, prize teachers sensed impact of inclusion on the teach environment, and assess teacher attitudes concerning ELLs. This ingest to a fault provides information which eminentlights champaigns which require attention or resolution. investigate QuestionsUpon recapitulation of both studies, one by Reeves (2004), and another by Walker, Schafer and Liams (2004) of secondary teachers experiences with ELL inclusion, questions were real to examine secondary teachers attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion in mainstream classes. Upon refresh of these studies four substantive themes sur go about. The Reeves acquire, albeit big(p)r in scale, provided a sound basis for this treatment. Those salient themes became the pastime research questions which have direct this contemplate1. Inclusion in mainstream classes What are teacher attitudes toward ELL i nclusion in mainstream classes?2. Modification of course construct for ELLs What are teacher attitudes toward the adaption of course carry for ELLs?3. ESL professional cognition What are teacher attitudes toward ESL professional maturement?4. instructor perceptions of second- delivery acquisition processes What are teacher perceptions of second-language acquisition processes?(Reeves, 2004)Definition of Termsthither are some(prenominal) statuss that need to be defined for pellucidness of discretion. These areBi-lingual The ability to speak deuce languages easily and naturallyESL English as a second languageELL English language learner,TESOL Teaching English for speakers of other languagesMainstream Mainstream in the consideration of education is a term that refers to classes and/or curricula common to the volume of students.Participants and putAll subject-area teachers were from 3 district full(prenominal) schools in spite of appearance a 25 mile radius of this researc h worker have participated in the batch by ship. The faculties chosen for participation in the hear were from the terzetto senior highschool school schools with the largest macrocosm of ESL students during the 2008-2009 school years. This was determined by use of public field of write up resources (www.city- entropy.com). High schools with the largest ESL student creations were identified to modify access to the largest number of teachers who had on the job(p) with ESL-inclusive class loads. Participants were examineed remotely via mail during the calendar month of July 2009.CHAPTER TWOAs an array of societal attitudes formulate regarding ELLs, so to do teacher attitudes. Although there exists a void exists in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion, this review of the literature will provide a basis for upgrade inquiry. belles-lettres review correspond to the National circle round for Education Statistics (2002), English lin guistic process Learners number everywhere five million ELLs in the linked States. This number has risen by 57% everyplace the past ten years and shows no sign of slowing. Within the gigantic Island region (the focus area of this research), schools continue to experience steady offset in the number of LEP students. In 2007 the number of the students having limited English advance reached s regular-year high. The appearance of these recent demographic changes requires increasingly greater self- query indoors the educational community since teaching and nurture is indeed a deuce-party exchange. The proliferation of professional literature end-to-end the educational community is evidence that the switch demographic is being explored, and hopefully hatched in a number of ways. According to Ballyntyne, Sanderman and Levy (2008), more and more teachers of mainstream general education classes, who unremarkably do not have special training in ESOL or bilingual education, are f aced with the challenge of educating these children. While research exploring the perspective of ELLs is abundant (Cummins, 2000 Fu, 1995 Harklau, 1994, 1999, 2000 Lucas,1997 Lucas, Henze, Donato, 1990 Mace-Matluck, Alexander-Kasparik, Queen, 1998 Valdes, 2001), research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion strikingly absent. This class will examine the insights which can be gained from the existing research as a basis for gain research.Attitudes Toward InclusionAlthough there has been relatively teeny research in the area of teacher attitudes toward ELL inclusion, a number of soft studies exploring the schooling experiences of ELLs have, at to the lowest degree computer peripherally, call offed the subject. Those teachers chronicled in the studies were portrayed as holding negative, antipathetic attitudes (Fu, 1995 Olsen, 1997 Verplatse Valdes, 1998, 2001). There were also more or less positive, accept attitudes far-famed however (Harklau, 2000 Re eves, 2004 Fu, 1995). Olson (1997) conducted an ethnographic study of a California high school, which had seen large demographic changes in a 20-year period. At the time of her research, the school population had shifted from 75 percent to 33 percent over a 20-year period. The rest students were 26 percent Hispanic, 14 percent African American and 26 percent Asian. About half(a) the students communicate a language other than English at home. The racial composition of the staff was virtuallyly white. ground upon the study, Olsen concluded that typical to the process of Americanization, newcomers to these joined States in our high schools undergo pedantic marginalization and separation. She asserts that there is pressure to plump English-speaking and to strike down ones aborigine language in order to participate in the academic and social life of the high school. In his study, Fu (1995) concurs, observing that English teachers and undisciplined ESL tutors use methodologies and had attitudes which could be characterized as typical. Most showed strict adherence to curricular demands, appeared frustrated by the additive workload or lower standards the students maybe represented for them, and in the field of second language acquisition, pretermited adequate understanding. Fu further shaded that the teachers had low expectations, gave complicated explanations, deficiencyed enough time, and used over-the-hill approaches.Valdes (1998), who reached exchangeable conclusions, sight four students at bottom classroom interactions, interviewed school personnel, and conducted in open, formal assessments of Spanish and English language development at the beginning and end of each academic year when possible. Valdes (1998) argues that English language teaching for most immigrant students in the United States is ineffective because it is rarely meaningful or purposeful uses outdated methods is often taught by untrained, if well-intentioned, teachers and m istakenly places blame for lack of progress on the student.Fu (1995) suggests that second language learners from the United States are often perceived by teachers as inferior in comparison to English language students who are of a diverse class. instructor perceptions of ELLs can make a motion educational outcomes in a number of ways. This is haveed by Harklau (1999) who conducted a study of roughly 100 ESL/LEP students in a suburban high school in northern California over 3 years. The research compared their experiences in mainstream study classes and ESL classes. She concluded that tracking of ESL learners into low-track heart classes can have serious commodious-run negative educational and occupational consequences. She concludes that much greater interaction in the midst of mainstream and ESL teachers is needed. Although teachers in the above studies, were loosely found holding ambivalent or inhospitable attitudes (Harklau,1999 Verplaetse,1998), there were celebrated exceptions. According to Fu (1995), when some teachers were able to touch curricular goals by yielding the students their own personal and ethnic connections to the material, they were gratified by the results.It has been suggested by detectives that a number of factors that could be influential in how teacher attitudes are determined, whether they be welcoming or unwelcoming in nature. Reeves (2004) notes trio categories which come to the fore as preeminent (a) teacher perceptions of the impact of ELL inclusion on themselves, (b) impact of inclusion on the accomplishment environment, and (c) teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELLs themselves. In a study by Youngs (1999), teachers cite a chronic lack of time to address Ells unique classroom needs. appurtenanceally there exists an apprehension among some teachers found upon the perception that workloads will rick unmanageable when ELLs are integrated into the mainstream classes. Verplaetse (1998) adds that some profession als expressed feelings of inadequacy to work with ELLs. The impact of inclusion on the classroom learning environment, has go to teacher concerns close the possibility that ELLs will in some way abash class progress through the course of instruction (Youngs, 2001), or may even create inequities in educational opportunities for the students as a whole (Platt, Harper, Mendoza, 2003 Reeves, 2004 Schmidt, 2000). more(prenominal) recently subject-area teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELLs have become emergent topics of research, including an unwillingness to work with low- advance ELLs as well as misconceptions about the processes of second-language acquisition (Olsen,1997 Reeves, 2004 2000). Additionally, assumptions about the race and ethnicity (both positive and negative) of ELLs are cited (Harklau, 2000 Valdes, 2001). It is important to note that all of the aforementioned studies were qualitative in nature. Furthermore, the number of teachers as participants was subaltern hardly a(prenominal) center in the beginning upon mainstream teachers.In their quantitative study of 143 oculus school teachers, Youngs and Youngs (2001) conducted an investigated the attitudes of mainstream teachers toward ESL students in essence and high schools. In the mainstream, they conclude the most pervasive attitudes toward teaching an ESL student in the mainstream ranged from neutral to slightly positive. Gitlin, Buenda, Crosland, Doumbia (2003) conducted a qualitative study observed 5 ESL teachers, 10 white students, the ESL program director, and a school administrator. Their interviews concentrate on on how these individuals viewed the ESL program, classroom practices, and pagan traffic in the school. They identified and analyse documents on extracurricular participation by ESL students, on school discipline, and on busing policies. In characterizing teacher attitudes, the researchers concluded that legion(predicate) teachers equate cultural diversion with cu ltural deficiency, a stance that typically leads them to stereotype students as having problems to effect and may lead to less enjoyment and sense of success in teaching (Gitlin, Buendia, Crosland, Doumbia,2003). In addition to lack of experience and training, matters are increase by a lack of additive confabulation with ESL teachers.Attitudes Toward ModificationAccording to Valdes (2001), the growing acceptance of an inclusion archetype for mateing the needs of ELLs is referable at least due in part to an increased stress on accountability and standards that has been further determined by what Nieto (2002) asserts is a long history of exclusionary schooling, characterized by programs which are peripheral in nature. Historically, the traditional ESL poseur placed students in ESL courses where the focus was upon provide instruction, and recieved limited access to content-oriented course of study needed to meet their educational needs or to fulfill beginning requirement s. Research however suggests that this approach runs snack counter to inclusion. Harklaus (1994) study reveals that the ESL instruction which was provided did not match ESL students academic needs in mainstream classrooms and that content-area classrooms were not matched with ESLs needs. Harklau (1994) observes that the curriculum of ESL and mainstream classes was upset and that the mainstream classes failed to engage ESL students in academic language learning. Echevarria, Vogt and Short (2004) note that programs which are well-implemented, cognitively challenging, not segregated, are find out to ESL students academic success. Nieto (2002) adds that education should be adapted or modified to meet the needs of ELLs. For an educational puzzle to be inclusive, it must provide candid access to curriculum, while at the same time providing for the multi-lingual array of learners i.e. educational methods must make content understandable for students learning English while remaining effective for English-proficient students. Echevarria, Vogt and Short (2004) however, report that high school content area teachers were seldom found to adjust instruction to make curriculum comprehensible for ELL students. Harklau (1994) observes that ELL students had bother understanding certain types of teacher talk Learners had particular catchyy understanding teacher talk which contained puns or was sarcastic or ironic . . . Learners were also frustrated with teachers who habitually spoke very fast, who used frequent asides, or who were prone to sudden departures from the instructional topic at hand (Harklau, 1994, p. 249). Youngs (1999) cites that some teachers attitudes concerning modification appeared to stem foiling with lack of time, ill-defined expectations and lack of quislingism with ELL teachers.Attitudes Toward Professional DevelopmentAlthough ELLs choke the bulk of their time in content-area classrooms, humble research has been conducted regarding content-area teachers attitudes toward professional development. Of the research that has been conducted, content-area teachers reported that they had limited experience with ESLs and lacked the obligatory training in operative with ELLs. This is support by the findings of Youngs and Youngs (2001) study which concludes a few(prenominal) mainstream teachers have been active to address the linguistic challenges and cultural differences present in diverse classrooms (Youngs Youngs, 2001, p. 101). In an inclusive model, the majority of the students time during the school day is spent in mainstream classes, with the addition of ESL classes as needed. Nieto (2002) maintains that teachers must possess knowledge of the history of specific cultural gatherings they are serving in the United States. Additionally adaptation of the curriculum for English language learners is also essential. Nieto maintains that the teacher must develop competency in pedagogical approaches suitable for different cultur al separates in United States schools. Researchers have also reported limited institutional supports such(prenominal) as guidance from the school administrators as well as lack of time and resources. Reeves (2004) study reports most content-area teachers would like to service ELLs but tended to vary in wrong of their expectations for ELLs. Research also suggests broad frustration among content-area teachers, concluding that in addition to lack of experience and training, there is also a lack of additional communication with ESL teachers. Youngs and Youngs (2001) maintain that few mainstream teachers have been prepared to address the linguistic challenges and cultural differences present in diverse classrooms (p. 101). As cited by Reeves (2004), a study by Clair (1995) documents three teachers views of professional development. All three of Clairs participants (Grades 4, 5, and 10) opted out of voluntary in-service workshops on methods of running(a) with ELLs. Among the reasons given for opting out were as follows One teacher stated that the workshops presented methods and materials that were unconnected for her classroom, while the other two subject teachers maintained already well prepared to work with ELLs The two remaining teachers, maintained that as undergo teachers of English-proficient students, they were already well prepared to work with ELLs. One possibly insightful comment by one of the teachers was, As far as teaching goes, teaching is the same no matter what kind of kids you have (Clair, 1995, p. 191). Although Clairs (1995) study, tapped data from only(prenominal) a pure group of teachers, it provided a rationale for more extensive studies of educators attitudes toward ESL professional development based upon a larger sample. instructor Attitudes toward Language AcquisitionResearch indicates that mainstream teachers often lack knowledge in the area of language acquisition. Nieto (2002) maintains that all practicing teachers need to devel op knowledge in the areas of first and second language acquisition and the socio-cultural and sociopolitical context of education in the United States. The degree to which teachers are informed in this area may indeed shape attitudes in regard to ELL learning rate and capacity. In her study, Reeves (2004) survey queried teacher perceptions of the duration of time that ESL students needed to acquire English proficiency. Most (71.7%) teachers agreed that ESL students should be able to acquire English inside two years of enrolling in U.S. schools (p.137). Teacher perceptions that two years is sufficient for full-language proficiency is not support by research this misconception may lead teachers to faulty conclusions concerning ELLs language ability, intelligence, or motivation. Although the average student can develop conversational fluency within two to five years, research has shown that that exploitation fluency in more technical, academic language can plight from four to seven y ears. This is dependent on a number of factors such as language proficiency level, age and time of arrival at school, level of academic proficiency in the native language, and the degree of support for achieving academic proficiency (Cummins, 1981, 1996 Hakuta, Butler, Witt, 2000 doubting Thomas Collier, 1997).The review of the research literature has revealed several important factors which shape teachers attitudes of ELLs knowledge of the history of specific cultural groups they are serving competence in pedagogical approaches suitable for different cultural groups depth of knowledge in the area language acquisition and the communication with the ESL teacher.CHAPTER THREEStatement of the Research ProblemDespite the amount of research being conducted in regard to bi-lingual education, there is a lack of information in the educational community regarding teacher attitudes toward including English-language learners in mainstream classrooms. There exists a void in the area of resear ch concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion. As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so do teacher attitudes.Of particular interest to this researcher are the experiences of secondary teachers, especially within the Long Island region. Because this area, which despite its cultural diversity has received so little attention from the research community, the design of this study has been driven by the need to conclude remedy that paucity of research by examining secondary mainstream teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion from a regional perspective. orchestrationThe putz used was designed to measure both teacher attitudes and perceptions of the inclusion of ELLs. Its four sections correlate to the aforementioned themes previously discussed. The first section percentage A- addressed teachers attitudes toward ELL and ESL inclusion. A Likert-scale was used to work out teachers extent of agreement or disagreement with 16 avowals prese nted in tattle to that focus area. Section B heedful the relative frequency of various practices and activities among teachers with ELLs in their classrooms, in singing to coursework modification . Section C utilized open-ended questions in concerns which focused upon ELL inclusion. The rationale for this was that open-ended questions allow for more individualized responses, but they are sometimes more sticky to interpret. The Section Dgathered demographic information. I chose to remain faithful to the format of the Reeves study (2004), because unlike the study conducted by Walker, Schafer and Liams (2004), this instrument model utilized doubled statements, rather than a singular pointedness, to green goddess teachers attitudes. Teachers strength of agreement or disagreement with survey items was measured with a 4-point, Likert-type scale. Respondents were to read each statement and check the box that most closely represents their opinions, from 1 (strongly agree), 2 (agree), 3 (disagree), or 4 (strongly disagree). The demographic data include such as subject areas, gender, years of teaching experience, and types of ELL training, native language and second-language proficiency. buffer storage breedingThe instrument was subjected to a buffer storage study utilizing a separate group of 12 high school teachers in summer 2009. The rationale for this was that this group of teachers comprised an appropriate pilot study population because they bear similarities to the subject high school teachers in terms of work environments and scope of responsibilities, yet since they were a distinct group, they would not contaminate the ultimate study population. Because the ages and work experiences of pilot study teachers were similar to those of their counterparts, their reaction to the survey was a useful prognosticator of the surveys readability and content validity.Definition of termsBi-lingual The ability to speak two languages easily and naturallyESL English as a second languageELL English language learner,TESOL teaching English for speakers of other languagesMainstream Mainstream in the context of education is a term that refers to classes and/or curricula common to the majority of students. rigor of the InstrumentThe pilot study was used to assess the surveys readability and as a predictor of content validity. Pilot study participants were asked to complete the following survey.They then answered questions formulated to give them the fortune to report their attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion accurately and fully.This survey uses a 4-point Likert-type scale, 1 (strongly agree), 2 (agree), 3, (disagree), and 4 (strongly disagree). Did the surveys format adequately allow you to express your opinion? If not, rationalize.Were any items on the survey unclear to you? Indicate and explain if any.Which, if any, items did you find difficult to answer? Indicate and explain if any.In your opinion, which, if any, items on the survey scupp er a bias on the part of the research? Explain.Provide any additional comments that you would like to make. compendium of respondents comments to the five survey questions was used to snub the likelihood of any regulation of misunderstanding for any given item and to assess respondents understanding of, or ability to respond to, survey items.Participants and SettingAll subject-area teachers from 3 district high schools within a 25 mile radius of this researcher were asked to participate in the survey by mail. The faculties chosen for participation in the study came from the 3 high schools with the largest population of ESL students during the 2008-2009 school year. This was determined by use of public domain resources (www.city-data.com). civilize A enrolled 24 LEP (limited-English proficiency) students, rail B enrolled 26 LEP students, School C enrolled 16 LEP students . This study include high schools with the largest ESL student populations to access the largest number of tea chers who had worked with ESL-inclusive class loads. Participants were selected remotely via mail and/or e-mail during the month of July 2009. data psychoanalysisSurvey data was analyzed descriptively. Univariate analyses of the survey data and analyses afforded an examination of the distribution of cases on only one variable at a time (Babbie,1990, p.247) identified participants attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion according to the strength of their agreement or disagreement with the survey items.The analyses included percentages, measures of central tendency, and standard deviations. To perform univariate analyses, a numeric value was charge to each response in the Likert scale-1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (agree), and 4 (strongly agree). Analysis of the numeric data will be performed with SPSS statistical software.AssumptionsIn the course of the research study, certain assumptions were made. The following are those which were intrinsic to this studyIt was delus ive that during this study, participants gender would not significantly affect their perceptions.It was assumed that all respondents would answer all survey questions honestly and to the ruff of their abilitiesIt was assumed that the sample is vocalisation of the populationThe instrument has validity and has measured the desired constructs.Impact of ELL Inclusion on TeachingImpact of ELL Inclusion on TeachingCHAPTER ONEIntroductionOver the course of time, major laws, policy documents and landmark decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court as well as other federal and state courts regarding bilingual education have shaped educational policy in the United States. The Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S.Constitution, a response to Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), established the constitutional basis for the educational rights of language minority students. Within a decade, Title VI Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in federally funded programs. Subsequently cit ed in many another(prenominal) court cases, it basically stated that a student has a right to meaningful and effective instruction. In 1974 the US Supreme Court reaffirmed the 1970 Memorandum regarding denial of access and participation in an educational program due to inability to speak or understand English. This action was the result of the Lau vs. Nichols class action suit brought by Chinese speaking students in San Francisco against the school district in 1974. There is no equality of treatment by providing students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers and curriculum, for students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education. The memorandum further affirmed that Basic English skills are at the very core of what public schools teach. Imposition of a requirement that, before a child can effectively participate in the educational program, he must already have acquired those basic skills is to make a mockery of public education (L au vs. Nichols, 1974).In accordance with what are known as the Lau Remedies, in 1975 the Department of Health, Education and well-being (HEW) established some basic guidelines for schools with Limited English Proficient (LEP) students. Although there has been much change in terms of public policy, the ultimate challenge of implementation rests upon the teacher.Throughout the United States public school teachers are challenged to meet the needs of an ever-increasing number of English-language learner (ELL) population. By the turn of this last century, the population of students identified as limited English proficient (LEP) has grown exponentially. From 1995 to 2001 alone, the LEP population grew approximately 105% nationwide (Kindler, 2002). According to recent estimates there are 4.5 million LEP students are currently enrolled in K-12 public schools in the United States. U.S. Census Bureau estimates indicate a continued trend of linguistic diversification in the years ahead (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Due to a linguistic shift the student population is experiencing, the educational community has had to fix its focus upon multilingual classrooms, and research set in multilingual classrooms has risen in importance. While there are specialists who work with limited or non-English speaking students initially, the students integration into a multilingual i.e. mainstream classroom is essential. Hence, teacher attitudes are an important consideration in terms of relevant professional preparation.Statement of the Research ProblemDespite the amount of research being conducted in regard to bi-lingual education, there is a lack of information in the educational community regarding teacher attitudes toward including English-language learners in mainstream classrooms. There exists a void in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion. As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so to do teacher attitudes.As members of th e communities they live in, teachers cannot help but be influenced by dominant societal attitudes. When teachers internalize dominant societal messages, they bring them directly into their schools and classrooms. School administrators, other school staff and parents all internalize societal messages, creating a school ethos that mirrors that of the community and the dominant order of society at large (Walker, Schafer and Liams, 2004).Of particular interest to this researcher are the experiences of secondary teachers, especially within the Long Island region. Because this area, which despite its cultural diversity has received so little attention from the research community, the design of this study will be driven by the need to help remedy that paucity of research by examining secondary mainstream teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion from a regional perspective.Purpose of the ResearchThe general purpose of this study therefore has been to broaden the existing body of k nowledge by identifying teacher perceptions of the impact of ELL inclusion upon their teaching, measure teachers perceived impact of inclusion on the teaching environment, and assess teacher attitudes concerning ELLs. This study also provides data which highlights areas which require attention or resolution.Research QuestionsUpon review of two studies, one by Reeves (2004), and another by Walker, Schafer and Liams (2004) of secondary teachers experiences with ELL inclusion, questions were developed to examine secondary teachers attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion in mainstream classes. Upon review of these studies four significant themes surfaced. The Reeves study, albeit larger in scale, provided a sound basis for this treatment. Those salient themes became the following research questions which have guided this study1. Inclusion in mainstream classes What are teacher attitudes toward ELL inclusion in mainstream classes?2. Modification of coursework for ELLs What are teacher attitudes toward the modification of coursework for ELLs?3. ESL professional development What are teacher attitudes toward ESL professional development?4. Teacher perceptions of second-language acquisition processes What are teacher perceptions of second-language acquisition processes?(Reeves, 2004)Definition of TermsThere are several terms that need to be defined for clarity of understanding. These areBi-lingual The ability to speak two languages easily and naturallyESL English as a second languageELL English language learner,TESOL Teaching English for speakers of other languagesMainstream Mainstream in the context of education is a term that refers to classes and/or curricula common to the majority of students.Participants and SettingAll subject-area teachers were from 3 district high schools within a 25 mile radius of this researcher have participated in the survey by mail. The faculties chosen for participation in the study were from the three high schools with the largest popu lation of ESL students during the 2008-2009 school years. This was determined by use of public domain resources (www.city-data.com). High schools with the largest ESL student populations were identified to enable access to the largest number of teachers who had working with ESL-inclusive class loads. Participants were surveyed remotely via mail during the month of July 2009.CHAPTER TWOAs an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so to do teacher attitudes. Although there exists a void exists in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion, this review of the literature will provide a basis for further inquiry.Literature reviewAccording to the National Center for Education Statistics (2002), English Language Learners number over five million ELLs in the United States. This number has risen by 57% over the past ten years and shows no sign of slowing. Within the Long Island region (the focus area of this research), schools continue to ex perience steady growth in the number of LEP students. In 2007 the number of the students having limited English proficiency reached seven-year high. The appearance of these recent demographic changes requires increasingly greater self-examination within the educational community since teaching and learning is indeed a two-way exchange. The proliferation of professional literature throughout the educational community is evidence that the shifting demographic is being explored, and hopefully addressed in a number of ways. According to Ballyntyne, Sanderman and Levy (2008), more and more teachers of mainstream general education classes, who normally do not have special training in ESOL or bilingual education, are faced with the challenge of educating these children. While research exploring the perspective of ELLs is abundant (Cummins, 2000 Fu, 1995 Harklau, 1994, 1999, 2000 Lucas,1997 Lucas, Henze, Donato, 1990 Mace-Matluck, Alexander-Kasparik, Queen, 1998 Valdes, 2001), research co ncerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion strikingly absent. This section will examine the insights which can be gained from the existing research as a basis for further research.Attitudes Toward InclusionAlthough there has been relatively little research in the area of teacher attitudes toward ELL inclusion, a number of qualitative studies exploring the schooling experiences of ELLs have, at least peripherally, addressed the subject. Those teachers chronicled in the studies were portrayed as holding negative, antipathetic attitudes (Fu, 1995 Olsen, 1997 Verplatse Valdes, 1998, 2001). There were also some positive, welcoming attitudes noted however (Harklau, 2000 Reeves, 2004 Fu, 1995). Olson (1997) conducted an ethnographic study of a California high school, which had seen large demographic changes in a 20-year period. At the time of her research, the school population had shifted from 75 percent to 33 percent over a 20-year period. The remaining students were 26 pe rcent Hispanic, 14 percent African American and 26 percent Asian. About half the students spoke a language other than English at home. The racial composition of the staff was mostly white. Based upon the study, Olsen concluded that typical to the process of Americanization, newcomers to these United States in our high schools undergo academic marginalization and separation. She asserts that there is pressure to become English-speaking and to drop ones native language in order to participate in the academic and social life of the high school. In his study, Fu (1995) concurs, observing that English teachers and untrained ESL tutors used methodologies and had attitudes which could be characterized as typical. Most showed strict adherence to curricular demands, appeared frustrated by the additional workload or lower standards the students possibly represented for them, and in the field of second language acquisition, lacked adequate understanding. Fu further noted that the teachers had low expectations, gave complicated explanations, lacked sufficient time, and used outdated approaches.Valdes (1998), who reached similar conclusions, observed four students within classroom interactions, interviewed school personnel, and conducted independent, formal assessments of Spanish and English language development at the beginning and end of each academic year when possible. Valdes (1998) argues that English language teaching for most immigrant students in the United States is ineffective because it is rarely meaningful or purposeful uses outdated methods is often taught by untrained, if well-intentioned, teachers and erroneously places blame for lack of progress on the student.Fu (1995) suggests that second language learners from the United States are often perceived by teachers as inferior in comparison to English language students who are of a different class. Teacher perceptions of ELLs can affect educational outcomes in a number of ways. This is supported by Harklau (19 99) who conducted a study of about 100 ESL/LEP students in a suburban high school in northern California over 3 years. The research compared their experiences in mainstream content classes and ESL classes. She concluded that tracking of ESL learners into low-track content classes can have serious long-term negative educational and occupational consequences. She concludes that much greater interaction between mainstream and ESL teachers is needed. Although teachers in the above studies, were generally found holding ambivalent or inhospitable attitudes (Harklau,1999 Verplaetse,1998), there were notable exceptions. According to Fu (1995), when some teachers were able to achieve curricular goals by allowing the students their own personal and cultural connections to the material, they were gratified by the results.It has been suggested by researchers that a number of factors that could be influential in how teacher attitudes are determined, whether they be welcoming or unwelcoming in na ture. Reeves (2004) notes three categories which emerge as preeminent (a) teacher perceptions of the impact of ELL inclusion on themselves, (b) impact of inclusion on the learning environment, and (c) teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELLs themselves. In a study by Youngs (1999), teachers cite a chronic lack of time to address Ells unique classroom needs. Additionally there exists an apprehension among some teachers based upon the perception that workloads will become unmanageable when ELLs are integrated into the mainstream classes. Verplaetse (1998) adds that some professionals expressed feelings of inadequacy to work with ELLs. The impact of inclusion on the classroom learning environment, has lead to teacher concerns about the possibility that ELLs will in some way hinder class progress through the curriculum (Youngs, 2001), or may even create inequities in educational opportunities for the students as a whole (Platt, Harper, Mendoza, 2003 Reeves, 2004 Schmidt, 2000). More r ecently subject-area teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELLs have become emergent topics of research, including an unwillingness to work with low-proficiency ELLs as well as misconceptions about the processes of second-language acquisition (Olsen,1997 Reeves, 2004 2000). Additionally, assumptions about the race and ethnicity (both positive and negative) of ELLs are cited (Harklau, 2000 Valdes, 2001). It is important to note that all of the aforementioned studies were qualitative in nature. Furthermore, the number of teachers as participants was small few focused primarily upon mainstream teachers.In their quantitative study of 143 middle school teachers, Youngs and Youngs (2001) conducted an investigated the attitudes of mainstream teachers toward ESL students in middle and high schools. In the mainstream, they conclude the most pervasive attitudes toward teaching an ESL student in the mainstream ranged from neutral to slightly positive. Gitlin, Buenda, Crosland, Doumbia (2003) c onducted a qualitative study observed 5 ESL teachers, 10 white students, the ESL program director, and a school administrator. Their interviews centered on how these individuals viewed the ESL program, classroom practices, and cultural relations in the school. They identified and analyzed documents on extracurricular participation by ESL students, on school discipline, and on busing policies. In characterizing teacher attitudes, the researchers concluded that Many teachers equate cultural difference with cultural deficiency, a stance that typically leads them to stereotype students as having problems to fix and may lead to less satisfaction and sense of success in teaching (Gitlin, Buendia, Crosland, Doumbia,2003). In addition to lack of experience and training, matters are compounded by a lack of additional communication with ESL teachers.Attitudes Toward ModificationAccording to Valdes (2001), the growing acceptance of an inclusion model for meeting the needs of ELLs is due at le ast due in part to an increased emphasis on accountability and standards that has been further driven by what Nieto (2002) asserts is a long history of exclusionary schooling, characterized by programs which are peripheral in nature. Historically, the traditional ESL model placed students in ESL courses where the focus was upon sheltered instruction, and recieved limited access to content-oriented curriculum needed to meet their educational needs or to fulfill graduation requirements. Research however suggests that this approach runs counter to inclusion. Harklaus (1994) study reveals that the ESL instruction which was provided did not match ESL students academic needs in mainstream classrooms and that content-area classrooms were not matched with ESLs needs. Harklau (1994) observes that the curriculum of ESL and mainstream classes was disconnected and that the mainstream classes failed to engage ESL students in academic language learning. Echevarria, Vogt and Short (2004) note that programs which are well-implemented, cognitively challenging, not segregated, are key to ESL students academic success. Nieto (2002) adds that education should be adapted or modified to meet the needs of ELLs. For an educational model to be inclusive, it must provide equitable access to curriculum, while simultaneously providing for the multi-lingual array of learners i.e. educational methods must make content understandable for students learning English while remaining effective for English-proficient students. Echevarria, Vogt and Short (2004) however, report that high school content area teachers were seldom found to adjust instruction to make curriculum comprehensible for ELL students. Harklau (1994) observes that ELL students had difficulty understanding certain types of teacher talk Learners had particular difficulty understanding teacher talk which contained puns or was sarcastic or ironic . . . Learners were also frustrated with teachers who habitually spoke very fast, who used frequent asides, or who were prone to sudden departures from the instructional topic at hand (Harklau, 1994, p. 249). Youngs (1999) cites that some teachers attitudes concerning modification appeared to stem frustration with lack of time, unclear expectations and lack of collaboration with ELL teachers.Attitudes Toward Professional DevelopmentAlthough ELLs spend the bulk of their time in content-area classrooms, little research has been conducted regarding content-area teachers attitudes toward professional development. Of the research that has been conducted, content-area teachers reported that they had limited experience with ESLs and lacked the necessary training in working with ELLs. This is supported by the findings of Youngs and Youngs (2001) study which concludes few mainstream teachers have been prepared to address the linguistic challenges and cultural differences present in diverse classrooms (Youngs Youngs, 2001, p. 101). In an inclusive model, the majority of the s tudents time during the school day is spent in mainstream classes, with the addition of ESL classes as needed. Nieto (2002) maintains that teachers must possess knowledge of the history of specific cultural groups they are serving in the United States. Additionally adaptation of the curriculum for English language learners is also essential. Nieto maintains that the teacher must develop competence in pedagogical approaches suitable for different cultural groups in United States schools. Researchers have also reported limited institutional supports such as guidance from the school administrators as well as lack of time and resources. Reeves (2004) study reports most content-area teachers would like to help ELLs but tended to vary in terms of their expectations for ELLs. Research also suggests considerable frustration among content-area teachers, concluding that in addition to lack of experience and training, there is also a lack of additional communication with ESL teachers. Youngs a nd Youngs (2001) maintain that few mainstream teachers have been prepared to address the linguistic challenges and cultural differences present in diverse classrooms (p. 101). As cited by Reeves (2004), a study by Clair (1995) documents three teachers views of professional development. All three of Clairs participants (Grades 4, 5, and 10) opted out of voluntary in-service workshops on methods of working with ELLs. Among the reasons given for opting out were as follows One teacher stated that the workshops presented methods and materials that were inappropriate for her classroom, while the other two subject teachers maintained already well prepared to work with ELLs The two remaining teachers, maintained that as experienced teachers of English-proficient students, they were already well prepared to work with ELLs. One possibly insightful comment by one of the teachers was, As far as teaching goes, teaching is the same no matter what kind of kids you have (Clair, 1995, p. 191). Altho ugh Clairs (1995) study, tapped data from only a small group of teachers, it provided a rationale for more extensive studies of educators attitudes toward ESL professional development based upon a larger sample.Teacher Attitudes toward Language AcquisitionResearch indicates that mainstream teachers often lack knowledge in the area of language acquisition. Nieto (2002) maintains that all practicing teachers need to develop knowledge in the areas of first and second language acquisition and the socio-cultural and sociopolitical context of education in the United States. The degree to which teachers are informed in this area may indeed shape attitudes in regard to ELL learning rate and capacity. In her study, Reeves (2004) survey queried teacher perceptions of the length of time that ESL students needed to acquire English proficiency. Most (71.7%) teachers agreed that ESL students should be able to acquire English within two years of enrolling in U.S. schools (p.137). Teacher perceptio ns that two years is sufficient for full-language proficiency is not supported by research this misconception may lead teachers to faulty conclusions concerning ELLs language ability, intelligence, or motivation. Although the average student can develop conversational fluency within two to five years, research has shown that that developing fluency in more technical, academic language can take from four to seven years. This is dependent on a number of factors such as language proficiency level, age and time of arrival at school, level of academic proficiency in the native language, and the degree of support for achieving academic proficiency (Cummins, 1981, 1996 Hakuta, Butler, Witt, 2000 Thomas Collier, 1997).The review of the research literature has revealed several important factors which shape teachers attitudes of ELLs knowledge of the history of specific cultural groups they are serving competence in pedagogical approaches suitable for different cultural groups depth of know ledge in the area language acquisition and the communication with the ESL teacher.CHAPTER THREEStatement of the Research ProblemDespite the amount of research being conducted in regard to bi-lingual education, there is a lack of information in the educational community regarding teacher attitudes toward including English-language learners in mainstream classrooms. There exists a void in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion. As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so do teacher attitudes.Of particular interest to this researcher are the experiences of secondary teachers, especially within the Long Island region. Because this area, which despite its cultural diversity has received so little attention from the research community, the design of this study has been driven by the need to help remedy that paucity of research by examining secondary mainstream teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion from a regional pers pective.InstrumentationThe instrument used was designed to measure both teacher attitudes and perceptions of the inclusion of ELLs. Its four sections correlate to the aforementioned themes previously discussed. The first section Section A- addressed teachers attitudes toward ELL and ESL inclusion. A Likert-scale was used to gauge teachers extent of agreement or disagreement with 16 statements presented in relation to that focus area. Section Bmeasured the frequency of various practices and activities among teachers with ELLs in their classrooms, in relation to coursework modification . Section C utilized open-ended questions in concerns which focused upon ELL inclusion. The rationale for this was that open-ended questions allow for more individualized responses, but they are sometimes more difficult to interpret. The Section Dgathered demographic information. I chose to remain faithful to the format of the Reeves study (2004), because unlike the study conducted by Walker, Schafer an d Liams (2004), this instrument model utilized multiple statements, rather than a singular item, to gauge teachers attitudes. Teachers strength of agreement or disagreement with survey items was measured with a 4-point, Likert-type scale. Respondents were to read each statement and check the box that most closely represents their opinions, from 1 (strongly agree), 2 (agree), 3 (disagree), or 4 (strongly disagree). The demographic data included such as subject areas, gender, years of teaching experience, and types of ELL training, native language and second-language proficiency.Pilot StudyThe instrument was subjected to a pilot study utilizing a separate group of 12 high school teachers in summer 2009. The rationale for this was that this group of teachers comprised an appropriate pilot study population because they bear similarities to the subject high school teachers in terms of work environments and scope of responsibilities, yet since they were a distinct group, they would not co ntaminate the ultimate study population. Because the ages and work experiences of pilot study teachers were similar to those of their counterparts, their reaction to the survey was a useful predictor of the surveys readability and content validity.Definition of termsBi-lingual The ability to speak two languages easily and naturallyESL English as a second languageELL English language learner,TESOL teaching English for speakers of other languagesMainstream Mainstream in the context of education is a term that refers to classes and/or curricula common to the majority of students.Validity of the InstrumentThe pilot study was used to assess the surveys readability and as a predictor of content validity. Pilot study participants were asked to complete the following survey.They then answered questions formulated to give them the opportunity to report their attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion accurately and fully.This survey uses a 4-point Likert-type scale, 1 (strongly agree), 2 (ag ree), 3, (disagree), and 4 (strongly disagree). Did the surveys format adequately allow you to express your opinion? If not, explain.Were any items on the survey unclear to you? Indicate and explain if any.Which, if any, items did you find difficult to answer? Indicate and explain if any.In your opinion, which, if any, items on the survey display a bias on the part of the research? Explain.Provide any additional comments that you would like to make.Analysis of respondents comments to the five survey questions was used to reduce the likelihood of any pattern of misunderstanding for any given item and to assess respondents understanding of, or ability to respond to, survey items.Participants and SettingAll subject-area teachers from 3 district high schools within a 25 mile radius of this researcher were asked to participate in the survey by mail. The faculties chosen for participation in the study came from the 3 high schools with the largest population of ESL students during the 2008 -2009 school year. This was determined by use of public domain resources (www.city-data.com). School A enrolled 24 LEP (limited-English proficiency) students, School B enrolled 26 LEP students, School C enrolled 16 LEP students . This study included high schools with the largest ESL student populations to access the largest number of teachers who had worked with ESL-inclusive class loads. Participants were selected remotely via mail and/or e-mail during the month of July 2009.Data AnalysisSurvey data was analyzed descriptively. Univariate analyses of the survey data and analyses afforded an examination of the distribution of cases on only one variable at a time (Babbie,1990, p.247) identified participants attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion according to the strength of their agreement or disagreement with the survey items.The analyses included percentages, measures of central tendency, and standard deviations. To perform univariate analyses, a numeric value was assigned to ea ch response in the Likert scale-1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (agree), and 4 (strongly agree). Analysis of the numeric data will be performed with SPSS statistical software.AssumptionsIn the course of the research study, certain assumptions were made. The following are those which were intrinsic to this studyIt was assumed that during this study, participants gender would not significantly affect their perceptions.It was assumed that all respondents would answer all survey questions honestly and to the best of their abilitiesIt was assumed that the sample is representative of the populationThe instrument has validity and has measured the desired constructs.